stephen Essays - Cosmologists, Fellows Of The Royal Society

Stephen William Hawking 8 January 1942 (age 69) Oxford, England Residence England Nationality British Fields Applied mathematics Theoretical physics Cosmology Institutions University of Cambridge California Institute of Technology Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics Stephen Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 to Dr. Frank Hawking, a research biologist, and Isobel Hawking. He had two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward.[11] Though Hawking's parents were living in North London, they moved to Oxford while his mother was pregnant with Stephen, desiring a safer location for the birth of their first child. (London was under attack at the time by the Luftwaffe.)[12] According to Hawking, a German V-2 missile struck only a few streets away.[13] After Hawking was born, the family moved back to London, where his father headed the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research.[11] In 1950, Hawking and his family moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire, where he attended St Albans High School for Girls from 1950 to 1953. (At that time, boys could attend the Girls' school until the age of ten.)[14] From the age of eleven, he attended St Albans School, where he was a good, but not exceptional, student.[11] When asked later to name a teacher who had inspired him, Hawking named his mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta.[15] He maintains his connection with the school, giving his name to one of the four houses and to an extracurricular science lecture series. He has visited it to deliver one of the lectures and has also granted a lengthy interview to pupils working on the school magazine, The Albanian. Hawking was always interested in science.[11] Inspired by his mathematics teacher, he originally wanted to study the subject at university. However, Hawking's father wanted him to apply to University College, Oxford, where his father had attended. As University College did not have a mathematics fellow at that time, it would not accept applications from students who wished to read that discipline. Hawking therefore applied to read natural sciences, in which he gained a scholarship.

Free Essays on The Poetry Of Linda McCarriston

Feeling Poetry Linda McCarriston shapes feelings of anger, rage, contempt and healing in her poetry through narration, metaphors with detailed sensory language as she unfolds the painful story of sexual abuse and family abuse at the hands of her alcoholic father. In an interview with Bill Moyers, Linda McCarriston states that â€Å"poetry allows the individual experience to strike like lightning through the collective institutional consciousness and to plumb the depths of actual communal experience so that what people don’t want said in fact get said†. (Moyers p. 272). Her simplest definition of poetry is â€Å"heightened speech†; she believes that truly inspired poetry is â€Å"extraordinary speech that at times comes through a poet with extraordinary power† (Moyers p. 272). The following two poems strike like lightning; readers experience extraordinary power as they encounter each poem. Linda McCarriston’s shocking use of language â€Å"speaks back to a culture† (Moyers 271) she believes created and sustained the dogma that led to the violence in her household. In her poems, A Castle In Lynn and To Judge Faolain, Dead Long Enough: A Summons the reader becomes acquainted with this poet’s experiences of her father as he dominates much of her writings. Ms. McCarriston’s poems are a chronology of her pain from childhood to adolescence to adult. The reader gets an intimate look at the human suffering of an alcoholic’s family and the refusal of those in power to halt the molestation and beatings. Reading her poems A Castle In Lynn and To Judge Faolain, Dead Long Enough: A Summons, whether or not you have personally experience such horror, the very core of your being is moved. Any woman reading her poems feels the brutality, shame, and humiliation inflicted upon her and her mother by her father. Linda McCarriston uses alliteration, assonance and punctuation throughout her poems that create an atmosphere of anger, ra... Free Essays on The Poetry Of Linda McCarriston Free Essays on The Poetry Of Linda McCarriston Feeling Poetry Linda McCarriston shapes feelings of anger, rage, contempt and healing in her poetry through narration, metaphors with detailed sensory language as she unfolds the painful story of sexual abuse and family abuse at the hands of her alcoholic father. In an interview with Bill Moyers, Linda McCarriston states that â€Å"poetry allows the individual experience to strike like lightning through the collective institutional consciousness and to plumb the depths of actual communal experience so that what people don’t want said in fact get said†. (Moyers p. 272). Her simplest definition of poetry is â€Å"heightened speech†; she believes that truly inspired poetry is â€Å"extraordinary speech that at times comes through a poet with extraordinary power† (Moyers p. 272). The following two poems strike like lightning; readers experience extraordinary power as they encounter each poem. Linda McCarriston’s shocking use of language â€Å"speaks back to a culture† (Moyers 271) she believes created and sustained the dogma that led to the violence in her household. In her poems, A Castle In Lynn and To Judge Faolain, Dead Long Enough: A Summons the reader becomes acquainted with this poet’s experiences of her father as he dominates much of her writings. Ms. McCarriston’s poems are a chronology of her pain from childhood to adolescence to adult. The reader gets an intimate look at the human suffering of an alcoholic’s family and the refusal of those in power to halt the molestation and beatings. Reading her poems A Castle In Lynn and To Judge Faolain, Dead Long Enough: A Summons, whether or not you have personally experience such horror, the very core of your being is moved. Any woman reading her poems feels the brutality, shame, and humiliation inflicted upon her and her mother by her father. Linda McCarriston uses alliteration, assonance and punctuation throughout her poems that create an atmosphere of anger, ra...

Final Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final Project - Essay Example In reality, the importance of classroom management and discipline cannot be alike (Jones, 2011). The importance of the former is more widespread than the latter. Classroom management is managing a student, and studying in a class set up, the student's and teacher behavior and the activity. Classroom management is the way teachers organize what takes place in a classroom. It contributes directly to the effectiveness of learning and teaching as the most helpful activities can be made almost inadequate when the educator does not organize them properly. Research has proved that 92% percent of high schools, which perform well academically, incorporate proper classroom management to help them achieve. However, discipline has diverse meanings. In other words, the educator adopts certain measures and methods to deal with a student's misbehavior issues. These issues are motivation, communication, and discipline (Jones, 2011). This paper will discuss how motivation, communication, and discipli ne fit into the larger concept of classroom management. Discipline and motivation, or understanding what makes students function is one of the leading steps in forming a successful classroom. Through, figuring out their wants and needs, a teacher can utilize this to promote self-control and growth in students (Jones, 2011). Research shows that 94 % of successful classroom management happens when students are motivated to work according to the school curriculum. However, student motivation and classroom management are normally the most difficult issues for a beginning teacher to overcome. All through the teacher-student training experience, a safe environment should be established, and a widespread policy of respect be maintained. Motivating Students and learners is the key to maintaining a maximum number of students and learners engaged in learning (Jones, 2011). Making lessons realistic, modeling excitement and addressing students' concerns are vital to motivation. Every day, the d ecisions students, make rely on conscious or unconscious factors. This is motivation (Jones, 2011). This is what drives a student to act. Motivation can be determined through goals, personality, experiences, curiosity, needs, anxiety, wants expectations and self-concept. One of the leading theories in motivation and inspiration is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In the theory, Maslow argued that there are eight vital needs of a human. The largest portion of human needs is physiologically related to humans. They are the essential elements of survival for instance shelter, food, comfort and good health among others. When these needs are met, a person seeks love and belonging. This is a psychological or mental need, and the individual wants to be a part of a cluster or group. The second largest potion is the esteem requirements, which include recognition and approval (Jones, 2011). The third portion is the desire and need to understand and know, or cognitive needs. Next is an aesth etic requirement when the person looks for symmetry and beauty. In the top two sections of human needs are self-transcendence and self-actualization. Self-actualization means that an individual seeks to find his or her purpose, and self-transcendence is helping others discover their purpose. This directly associates to discipline, meaning that students or learners will behave with regards to their needs. Therefore, if educators motivate students to work along their

Compare and Contrast the North American and European Perspectives on Essay

Compare and Contrast the North American and European Perspectives on Competitive Balance - Essay Example A higher competitive balance would be determined if the disparity of the league presentation is minimal in relation to the perfect league (Zimbalist, 508). Most persons have made sports as their professions through which, they earn their livelihood. Europe and North America are among the regions with significant ventures in sports. Both North America and Europe tend to expose their superiority in sports, but in unique ways. The regions show outstanding approaches on different types of sports such as football, boxing, basketball and athletics. North America and Europe possess similar elements in sports that are susceptible to evaluations to allow comparison and the determination of contrasts. The comparison of the sports between the two regions incorporates the balancing of the similar aspects of their sports process. The contrasts would entail the disparities in the elements of sports and the procedures incorporated in the regional sports of North America and Europe. Sporting teams i nvolve in a combined production during competition and the value of their results contributes to their product sold to the spectators. Sports are also unique because the predetermination of the results lowers the public’s turn up and decreases the demand. This exercise would incorporate the inclusion of credible examples to enhance the vividness of evaluated sports instances. European sports have postulated a significant dominance in one sport, the football. The football has become a source of aesthetics in the European countries such as England and Spain. Therefore, the European football has attracted many individuals from various regions of the globe. Consequently, the European football has undergone modifications in every aspect accompanied by enhanced degree of specializations. Europe possesses one of the largest markets of football kits and the football personalities. Europe has also the efficiently balanced football schedule that offers guidelines throughout the leagues throughout the sporting year (Zimbalist, 508). In contrast, the North America practices a diversified sports system in their competitions. The Americans have ensured minor disparities between different sports and activities. The North Americans have ensured proficient in other sports such as athletics, basketball, tennis and rugby. The consideration of different sports equally might attribute to better economic welfare since there are more sources of revenue to the states. The sports also exhibit different competitive balances in their performance equally. For instance, the National Basketball Association has attained two champions, the Celtics who dominated in 1959 and ten years after and the 76ers, which won thereafter. Other teams have also surfaced in the championships winnings such as the Lakers, Pockets and Pistons, bulls. This competition in basketball also shows that the North Americans engage actively in more than one sport, unlike the Europe. The European sports exhibit a significant degree of flexibility regarding the teams participating in tournaments and leagues. The European football leagues entail the pyramid system, which allows for the appreciation and depreciation of ranks of the teams basing on performance. The European leagues exist in different categories for instance

Sale of Goods Act 1979 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sale of Goods Act 1979 - Essay Example Section 13(1A) of This Act provides as regards England and Wales, the term implied by subsection (1) above is a condition. Under Section 13 of the Act there is an implied condition in a contract of sale, upon the supplier of a service in a contract that the goods will correspond with the description, which will apply to any sale where the purchaser does not see the goods before he buys them & when acting in the course of a business that he will carry out the service with reasonable contractual period. Even if the purchaser has seen the goods, there may be a sale by description if he has relied upon the description. In this question it need to discuss While 'description' itself is an ordinary English word, the Sale of Goods Act 1979 contains no definition of what it means when it speaks (in Section 13) of a contract for the sale of goods being a sale 'by description'. And then it needs to discuss that a contract is from between parties when the seller was agreeing to sell and the buyer agreeing to buy. Now it need to discuss about condition, sale 'by description', current possession, and misrepresentation. First, one has to decide what is the meaning of sale by description. In the case of Varley v Whipp1 it has been held that this phrase must apply to all cases where the purchaser has not seen the goods but is relying on the description alone. Therefore, a sale must be by description if it is of future, or unascertained goods. But in addition, the term applies in many cases even where the buyer has seen the goods. Not only the term "sale by description" includes goods of a generic kind, for example, a packet of brand X cigarettes but also specific goods when they are sold as a thing corresponding to description. In the case of Beale v Taylor2 the subject matter of the contract was described as a 1961 Triumph Herald Convertible and the plaintiff saw the car and bought it. In fact, it turned out to be two different cars joined together. It was held that the car did not comply with the description. In Grant v Australian Knitting Mills [1936] the sale of woolen underwear was held to be a sale by description even though the buyer was buying something displayed before him on the counter. But a sale is not a "sale by description" where the buyer makes it clear that he is buying a particular thing because of its unique qualities, and that no other will do, or where there is absolutely no reliance by the buyer on the description (Harlingdon Ltd v Christopher Hull Fine Art Ltd3). In other words it appears that the only case of a sale not being by description occurs where the buyer makes it clear that he is buying a particular thing because of its unique qualities and that no other will do. For this reason, the sale of manufactured item will nearly always be a sale by description (except where it is second hand) because articles made to an identical design are not generally bought as unique goods but as goods corresponding to that design. In the Harlingdon case, the buyer was a professional art dealer who knew the seller had no experience or knowledge of the type of painting being said. There was accordingly no breach of s. 13 when the painting turned out to be a forgery. The buyer had placed no reliance on the seller's description. These cases suggest that the real question at issue in deciding whether the sale should be classified as a

The Deprivation Of Liberty Criminology Essay

The Deprivation Of Liberty Criminology Essay Deprivation of liberty should be regarded as a sanction or measure of last resort and should therefore be provided for only, where the seriousness of the offence would make any other sanction or measure clearly inadequate declares Principle 1 of the Council of Europes Recommendation Concerning Prison Overcrowding and Prison Population Inflation (Council of Europe, 1999). Despite these principles, various sources say that the prison population is on the boost in many parts of the world (U.K. Ministry of Justice, 2008; BJS, 2010; Clear, Cole Reisig, 2008, p.472; U.K. Home Office, 2003). And it is also predicted to increase in the coming years (U.K. Ministry of Justice, 2008; U.K. Home Office, 2003). At the same time it is interesting to note that, the prison population and growth rates vary considerably between different regions of the world, and even among different parts of the same continent (U.K. Home Office, 2003). An analysis of the global prison population rates reveals the following facts. In Africa the median rate for western and central African countries is 35 whereas for Southern African countries it is 231, the Americas the median rate for South American countries is 154 whereas for Caribbean countries it is 324.5, in Asia the median rate for south central Asian countries (mainly the Indian sub-continent) is 53 whereas for (ex-Soviet) central Asian countries it is 184, in Europe the median rate for southern European countries is 95 whereas for central and eastern European countries it is 229, in Oceania (including Australia and New Zealand) the median rate is 102.5 (Walmsley, 2008). These fluctuations and inconsistencies in the prison population rate raise many questions. The question concerning reasons for the increase and inconsistencies in the prison population is one of them. Professor Nicola Lacey argues in one of her paper that, across the developed world today, we see striking contrasts in the level of and quality of imprisonment. In 2006, imprisonment rates per 1, 00,000 of the population ranged from about 36 in Iceland to a staggering 725 in the U.Sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.It is also generally explained that these differences cannot be explained in terms of crime rates, which unlike levels of imprisonment- have risen and fallen over the last 50 years in broadly similar ways in most advanced countries (2008, p. 9). Professor Lacey further says, These variations in punishment can be explained in terms of a differentiated model of varying forms of capitalist economy and democracy. Individualistic liberal economies such as the U.S, the U.K, Australia and New Zealand have over the last 50 years almost universally seen striking increase in the imprisonment rate, while coordinated market economies such as those of northern Europe and Scandinavia have seen, by and l arge, much more stable levels of imprisonment (2008, p. 9). The United States of America to be the nation with highest number of prison population in the world and United Kingdom is placed at seventeenth position where as the two coordinated market economies from Scandinavia, the Denmark and Norway occupies positions 129th and 133rd respectively (International Centre for Prison Studies, 2010a). In this backdrop, this essay attempts to analyse the increase in the prison population in late modern liberal market economies. The essay is divided into five parts. After the first part, which obviously is the Introduction, the second part analyses the prison population statistics from two individualistic liberal economies, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. This part also compares the prison population rates with crime rates. In the third part an attempt is made to identify reasons for the variation in the prison population rates in these economies. The fourth part analyses the desirability of stemming this upward trend in prison population and last part includes conclusion with few suggestions for lessening the prison population. In the following part, prison population rates of the two liberal market economies, i.e. the US and the U.K are analysed and then these rates are compared with crime rates. Prison Population in the U.S- At present, the United States imprisonment rates are now almost five times higher than the historical norm prevailing throughout most of the twentieth century, and they are three to five times higher than in other Western democracies (Clear Austin, 2009, p. 307). Contrary to the earlier views that the prison population was too less in the US, the increased population helped the US policy makers to have a broad consensus that Prison Population is too large. Many policy makers are also convinced, that the current system is no longer affordable due to pressing fiscal demands (Clear Austin, 2009, pp. 307- 308). The U.S. rate of incarceration of 702 inmates per 100,000 populations represents not only a record high, but situates this nation as the world leader in its use of imprisonment (Mauer, 2003). The statistics from the United States Bureau of Justice (BJS) also portrays a similar picture. It says that the number of adults in the correctional population has been increasing in the US (BJS, 2010). According to BJS statistics the population under correctional supervision reached a staggering 7.3 million in the year 2008. This is 3.2% of all U.S. adult residents. In other words it can be stated that 1 out of every 31 adults in U.S is under correctional supervision (BJS, 2010). The total prison population that was 3,715,800 in the year 1988 in various correctional supervision centres reached a total of 7,308,200 by 2008 (BJS, 2010). The following table illustrate the details of prison population from 1992 to 2007. Table 1. Prison population in the US Year Total prison population Prison population out of 1,00,000 of the total population 1992 1,295,150 (505) 1995 1,585,586 (600) 1998 1,816,931 (669) 2001 1,961,247 (685) 2004 2,135,335 (723) 2007 2,298,041 (758) Source: International Centre for Prison Studies, 2010d. The above given statistics shows the total prison population which was 1,295,150 in the year 1992 reached 2,298041 in the year 2007 which is an increase of 77.4% in the prison population. Similarly the number of people in every 100000 of the total national population in prisons was increased by 50% from 1992 to 2007 (International Centre for Prison Studies, 2010d). A search for the reasons for such a massive increase in the rates of people confined in prisons requires a search into the crime rates in USA during these years. It is because normally people tend to suppose that an increased crime rate would naturally also lead to an increased prison population rate. While analysing the crime rates in US during this period, the statistics confirm a decline in all the categories of crimes. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reports show that the crime rates have been falling in U.S ever since 1980s (FBI, 2008; US Census, 2010). The following table shows the pattern of falling crime rate in US. Table 2. Crime rates in USA Year Murder and Non Negligent man slaughter rate Forcible Rape rate Robbery rate Aggravated Assault rate 1992 757.7 9.3 42.8 263.7 1995 684.5 8.2 37.1 220.9 1998 567.6 6.3 34.5 165.5 2001 504.5 5.6 31.8 148.5 2004 463.2 5.5 32.4 136.7 2007 466.9 5.6 30.0 147.6 Source: FBI 2008. The table given above evidently demonstrates that the crime rates have been declining in the USA under all categories. A similar fall can also be observed in other types of crimes, like property crime, burglary, larceny and motor vehicle theft cases (FBI, 2008). A comparative analysis of the rates of prison population and crime rates in the US proves that crime rates play only a minimal role in the increase of prison population rate. Prison Population in the United Kingdom- The United Kingdom is placed at seventeenth position in terms of population in prisons (International Centre for Prison Studies, 2010e). The following table illustrate the details of prison population in the United Kingdom from 1992 to 2009. Table 2. Prison Population in the U.K Year Total prison population Prison population out of 1,00,000 of the total population 1992 44,719 (88) 1995 50,962 (99) 1998 65,298 (126) 2001 66,301 (127) 2004 74,657 (141) 2007 80,216 (148) 2008 81,695 (152) 2009 82,893 (155) Source: International Centre for Prison Studies, 2010e Ministry of Justice Statistics bulletin, 2009. The above given data exhibits an increase of 79.3% in the prison population and 68% increase in the number of prisoners in every 100000 of the total national population from 1992 to 2007. More recently this increase has become more marked: the average prison population has increased by 85% since 1993. Like the US, in UK also the trend show that crime rose steadily from 1981 through to the early 1990s, peaking in 1995. Crime then fell, making 1995 a significant turning point. The fall was substantial until 2004/05. Since then crime has shown little overall change with the exception of a statistically significant reduction of 10 per cent in 2007/08 to mark the lowest ever level since the first results in 1981 (U.K. Home Office, 2008). The population of public sector prisons in England and Wales at the end of March 2008 was 72,651 (HMPS Annual Report and Accounts, 2007-2008). The prison population in England and Wales, including those held in police cells, was at a record high of 81,695 in 2008, while it increased to 82,893 prisoners in 2009 (Ministry of Justice Statistics bulletin, 2009). Like the US, in UK also the trend show that crime rose steadily from 1981 to the early 1990s, peaking in 1995. Crime then fell, making 1995 a significant turning point. The fall was substantial until 2004/05. Since then crime has shown little overall change with the exception of a statistically significant reduction of 10 per cent in 2007/08 to mark the lowest ever level since the first results in 1981 (U.K. Home Office, 2008). In UK also two main factors have been identified for the prison population. It is stated Offenders are being imprisoned who previously would have received community penalties; and those who would previously have been sent to prison are being given longer sentences. Between 1991 and 2001, the custody rate for magistrates courts increased from 5% to 16% and use of custody by the Crown Court rose from 46% to 64% (Hough; Jacobson Millie, 2003). The analysis in the preceding section shows a clear increase in the prison population rate both in USA and UK. The next part of this essay is an attempt to find an answer for this question -Reasons for the upward trend of the Prison Population in modern liberal market economies such as the USA and Britain? Scholars working on the area of prison population point out various reasons for its growth. There have much scholarly deliberations on the role of crime rate on the rate of growth of prison population. The main drivers for prison population growth in US and Britain are discussed as follows- Sentencing Policy- Very often sentencing policy of the state is cited as a reason for increased prison population. It is stated, In the 1970s, the prison population grew because the crime rate grew, resulting in greater numbers of people going to prison. In the 1980s, and stretching into the early 1990s, a host of sentencing policies restricted the use of probation as a sentence for felons, causing a substantial increase in the number of people entering prison during a period when crime rates were semi-stable (Blumstein Beck, 2005). It is further stated, After that, legislation that enhanced penalties for felonies greatly increased the average length of prison terms, which led to growing prison populations even as crime rates dropped and the number of people entering prison began to stabilize. The result was a growing backlog of people serving long sentences, who made up a permanent population base upon which the flow into and out of prison was grafted. The point is that the size of the prison populat ion is a matter of penal policy, and over the last thirty-six years, particularly, the United States has built a policy designed to grow prisons (Clear Austin, 2009, p. 312). The assassinations of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King in US 1968, riots and political violence resulted in toughening of criminal justice and penal policy (Downes, 2001). US federal system and California passed laws in 1994 Three strikes and youre out, the strike-able offences included- murder, rape, robbery, arson and assaults. According to Zimrings article Imprisonment Rates New Politics, the three strike system led to nine times increase in the prison population including all of the other 26 three strike laws in US (Zimring, 2001). Penal commentators have tended to identify two factors namely change in climate of political public debates about crime punishment and; change in the legislative framework guidance within which sentences operate (Ashworth Hough, 1996; Dunbar Langdon, 1998). In February, 1993 drove public concern into public panic, the abduction and murder of a young child James Bulger, by two 10 year old boys, shocked England and there was demand to curb the delinquent tendencies of the new generation of ever younger and increasingly persistent offenders (Graham Moore, 2006). The new legislation, the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act, 1994 introduced stiffer penalties for juvenile offenders, including long term detention for 10-13 year olds, similar was done in section 53 of the Children and Young Persons Act, 1993. The introduction of three strike sentences in Britain, 1999 for burglars where a third time offender for burglary receives 3 years sentence automatically (Powers of Criminal Co urts (Sentencing) Act 2000; sec-111). These developments resulted in a substantial rise in juvenile custodial population and punitive responses to offending by children and young people (Graham and Moore, 2006). In Britain, theft and motoring offences were common for prisoners serving short sentences: violence, burglary and drugs offences were common for those sentenced for a year or more (Stewart, 2008). Many legal systems through their penal laws prescribe mandatory minimum punishment for various offences. Many appreciate the policy of mandatory sentencing claiming that such policy would reduce crime rates. Many also argue that such policies would provide uniformity in sentencing for similar crimes. But if this mandatory minimum punishment were too long a period in the prison, it would gradually increase the size of the prison population. The Iron Law of Prison Populations states that the size of a prison population is completely determined by two factors: how many people go to prison and how long they stay. If either of these factors changes, the size of the prison population will also change. The corollary to this iron law is equally important: There is no way to change the prison population without changing either the number of people who go to prison or how long they stay there (Clear Austin, 2009, p. 312). Unemployment, Poverty and Prison Population- Is there any nexus between the increasing prison population rates in USA and UK and the economic policies of these states? A possible relationship between unemployment, poverty, crime rate and resulting increase in the prison population rate has been analysed in many studies (Crow, et al, 1989; Box Hale, 1985). Box and Hale says One fairly orthodox view is that rising unemployment leads to crime and this in turn, assuming constant rates of reporting and recording of crimes, arrest, conviction and imprisonment sentences, leads automatically to an increase in prison population. (p. 209). Similarly it is also argued that unemployment contributes to an increase in crime rate and whenever employment schemes have been effectively implemented; these schemes have a containment effect to keep people from trouble (Crow, et al, 1989). Even though it is also contented that the menace of crime cannot be always linked to the subpopulation of the unemployed (Box Hale, 1985, p. 209), it is also ar gued that unemployment certainly is a factor though not in a direct way, but in an indirect and complex way (Crow, et al, 1989). Most commonly in US and to lesser extent in Britain the most influential explanation imputed rising crime and riots to newly jobless marauding underclass (Downes, 2001). Unemployment caused by the recent economic recession also increased the prison population according to some scholars. The disappearance of many secure jobs in the low-skilled or manufacturing sector after the collapse of Fordism led to the creation of a large minority of unemployed or insecurely employed people who were protected by the social welfare system. The economic exclusion of this large group, along with their sense of their own relative deprivation fed both rising crime and a heightened sense of insecurity and demand for punishment among those securely employed (Lacey, 2008, p 10). The concern with the crime and fear of victimisation has grown out of proportion ; fear which typic ally is most focussed on traditional street crimes and crimes allegedly committed by powerless minority groups across Europe and US, as increasing prison population consist of minorities and foreigners (Marshall, 1996). Politics of Tough on Crime- The policy to be tough on crime, tough on the cause of criminal was adopted by Britain from the Americans Democratic Partys approach (Pease, 1997; Ryan, 1999). In the U.K à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦from 1970s on, law and order has become a salient electoral issue; and on Tony Blairs accession to the position of shadow Home Secretary, Labour began to abandon its traditional analysis in favour of a tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime platform (Lacey, 2008, p 10). The situation being this political parties do not have much option except to be tough on crime. In particular the support for strong law and order policies among a growing number of floating median voters led to a situation in which criminal justice policy became highly politicised (Lacey, 2008, p. 10). The sad fact, moreover, is that the size and demographic structure of the prison population suggest that the socially exclusionary effects of the tough on crime part of the criminal policy equation have, in relation to a significa nt group of population systematically undermined the, inclusionary tough on the causes of crime aspiration. The rate of imprisonment has continued inexorably even in a world of declining crime (Lacey, 2008, p 11). New policies formulated by the Crime Disorder Act 1998, inspired from American zero tolerance policing and prosecution led to increase in prison population to approx 75,000 prisoners in 2003 (Downes, 2001; Home office, 2003). The large-scale imprisonment of drug offenders in US also became a major factor in prison population growth (Donzinger, 1996; Blumstein beck, 1999). The punitive response to drugs has been so potent, that drug trafficking lead to longer prison sentences than for homicide (Caplow Simon, 1999). Too many laws and too many crimes- Anthony Gregory, who is a Research Analyst at the Independent Institute, cites a different reason for Americas top rank in prison population. He says that it is because US have too many laws that prevent persons from enjoying their right to liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness (Gregory, 2006). He says, Those who have committed no crime against person or property should be released from the jails and prisons. These include drug offenders, sex workers, those in possession of illegal guns, and anyone else who has hurt and threatened no one, whose only offence was to violate a victimless crime statute (Gregory, 2006). He further adds that As for minor property criminals, justice should be about making the victim whole, not about expensively caging people just to provide jobs for the prison guards, money for the bureaucracy, and talking points for tough-on-crime politicians (Gregory, 2006). It is also noted that the law enforcement oriented approaches in most of the Western Eur ope have caused persons sentenced for drug offences to make up an increased percentage of prison population (Dunkel van Zyl Smit, 2001). Even the use of remand and parole system contributed massively in prison population in both US and Britain. In UK, 2008 there were approximately 12,566 males and 874 females on remand, while only 1424 males and 96 females were held in prison for non-criminal offences (Home Office, 2008). Connecticut Department of Corrections Committee on Prison Overcrowding- In the year 2000, the Department of Corrections in the State of Connecticut constituted a Program Review Committee to study the main factors causing the prison overcrowding problem and the options available to the legislative and executive and judicial branches to control the growth of the inmate population (Connecticut General Assembly, 2000). The committee report showed most of the causes of prison overcrowding occurred outside the administration and jurisdiction of the Department of Correction and these complex issues and problems cannot be addressed by a single state agency (Connecticut General Assembly, 2000). The Committee identified five main causes of prison overcrowding- firstly, despite the decrease in arrest and crime rates, the number of offenders in prison or jail continued to increase due to the war on drugs, increased funding for police, increased role of victims and victim advocacy groups in the court process, recidivism and technical violations of probation and parole, harsher penalties for certain types of crimes, and alternative sanction options; secondly, convicted inmates were remaining incarcerated for a greater portion of their court-imposed prison sentences as a result of the shift from an indeterminate to a determinate sentencing structure, elimination of good time, creation of time-served standards for parole eligibility, and the enactment of several truth in sentencing initiatives; thirdly, the aggressive tough on crime approach supported by the legislature and adopted by the executive and judicial branches allows the criminal justice system to narrow its use of discr etion and take a more conservative and less controversial approach to punishment; fourthly, lack of prison beds, especially high security and pre-trial beds, forced Department of Corrections to operate at capacity and; lastly, poor planning and a lack of an accurate population projection and offender needs analysis contributed to the cycle of overcrowding and hampered Department of Corrections efforts to adequately plan for new or expanded facilities (Connecticut General Assembly, 2000). The concept of private prison also to some extent leads to increase in prison population. Private prison is a place where individuals are physically confined by private parties. Private prison companies enter into contractual arrangements with local, state, or federal governments that commit prisoners and then pay a per diem or monthly rate for each prisoner confined in the facility. Privatization of prisons refers both to the takeover of existing prison facilities by private operators and to the building and operation of new prisons by for-profit by prison companies. Proponents of privately run prisons argue that cost-savings and efficiency of private prisons are advantages over public prisons, even though doubts have been raised regarding the cost effectiveness of private prisons. An important criticism is that private prisons would lead to a market demand for prisoners and efforts by private companies to ensure prison population is on the rise. This may create a lobby of intereste d individuals who would purposely impede the cause of lessening of prison population. The reasons are many. It is more money for the private prisons management if they get more inmates. More number of inmates means more money from the State and the cheap prison labour (Smith, 1993). Desirability of Stemming Prison Overcrowding and Risks involved- One prominent reason for stemming prison overcrowding is that there seems to be little or no nexus between the duration a prisoner spends in the prison and his chances of reformation. Offender do not always reform and refrain from doing a crime after release. Prisoners do not become less likely to commit crimes upon release, increasing the prison release rate seems to have little disadvantage, certainly, some prisoners will commit crimes upon release (Jacobson, 2005, p. 310 311). The conclusion we can draw from this analysis is that the size of the prison population and the amount of crime are related, but not strongly. A tough on crime punishment policy decreases crime rate and provides a smooth functioning of the society and would also increase the efficiency of the market. But at the same time long imprisonment term is not related to the prisoners likelihood of staying crime free. The issue which requires deeper analysis is on the risks involved in increasing release rate and stem ming prison overcrowding. There are obvious advantages of imprisonment. Imprisonment is not totally undesirable; rather, imprisonment achieves most aims of punishment. The theories of punishment, such as the utilitarian, restorative, retributive and reformative justifications, suggest aims of punishment and look at punishment as a means to a definite end. These theories and justifications influence the penal policy of the state. Jeremy Bentham the prominent utilitarian says, The business of the government is to promote the happiness of the society, by punishment and rewarding , .. In proportion as an act tends to disturb that happiness, in proportion as the tendency of its pernicious will be the demand it creates for punishment (Bentham, 1789, Chapter 1). According to another author, The degree of punishment, and the consequence of a crime, out to be so contrived as to have the greatest possible effect on others, with the least possible pain to the delinquent.. (Baccana, 1809, Chapter 11). Similarly efforts have been made by scholars to analyse the purposes of punishment from an economic perspective. Richard Posner writes, The major function of criminal law in a capitalist society is to prevent people from bypassing the system of voluntary compensated exchange-the market, explicit or implicit- In situations where because transaction costs are low, the market is a more efficient method of allocating resources than forced exchangeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Most of the distinctive doctrines of criminal law can be explained as if the objective of that law were to promote economic efficiency (Posner, 1985, pp 1230-31). Core of Posners argument is that punishment is for market efficiency. Similarly the retributive justification considers that if a punishment is proportionate to the wrong that has been committed by the offender that is justifiable. The gravity of the punishment also needs to be viewed from the victims perspective (Kant, 1887). Crime is a major social problem. If the crime rate in an economy is uncontrolled, it will definitely affect the efficiency of its market. If an investor were given an option, he would definitely invest in that economy where his money would be secure and protected from criminals and mafias (Pyle, 2000). At the same time maintaining of prisoners for a long duration in the prisons is also viewed to be uneconomical (Clear Austin, 2009, p 307). The JFA report, provided ways to reduce prison population in US (Austin, 2007) the time served in prison should be reduced, technical parole and probation violators should not serve time in prison for such behaviour and people convicted for victimless crimes should not be sentenced to state prison as in case of drug offences etc (Austin, 2007, p 23-24). Thus, all these problems can be tackled and prison population can be controlled firstly, by bringing a change in the outlook of the people towards crime and punishment, so that less use of prison, instead use of alternative for prison should be made. A change in the legal and legislative framework of sentences is required, to bring down the custody rates and sentence lengths served by the offenders. Improvement in understanding of the various ranges of non-custodial penalties including the fine among sentences should be imposed (Hough, et al, 2003). In, addition imposition of day fines to be readily applied in US and Britain, as they have been successfully used in countries like Germany, Austria and Sweden to reduce the use of short prison sentences (Scottish Consortium on crime and Criminal Justice, 2005). Conclusion- From proactive and human rights perspective it is always desirable to stem overcrowding. The less likelihood of transformation as result of long term in prisons and continuing a tough on crime policy by the state requires a rethinking about the existing long-term punishment policy. It is suggested that prisoners can serve shorter sentences without triggering an increase in the crime rate. Furthermore, maintaining a large prison population does not necessarily significantly decrease the number of crimes committed (Jacobson, 2005, p. 311). According to Jacobson any solution to the problem of mass incarceration must begin with two points, firstly, programmatic tinkering has not reduced the prison population to date, and it will never have much effect, even under the most optimistic assumptions and secondly, to overcome mass incarceration requires that we incarcerate fewer people, reduce length of stay for persons placed on probation and parole and make greater use of fines, restitution, and community service in lieu of probation (Jacobson, 2005). If mass imprisonment is the problem then the solution is to change the laws that send people to prison and sometimes keep them there for lengthy terms, that is reducing the number going in, their length of stay, or both (Jacobson, 2005, p 316). Provision should be made for an appropriate array of community sanctions and measures, possibly graded in terms of relative severity; prosecutors and judges should be prompted to use them as widely as possible (Council of Europe, 1999, principle 2). It is also suggested that States should consider the possibility of decriminalising certain types of offence or reclassifying them so that they do not attract penalties entailing the deprivation of liberty (Council of Europe, 1999, principle 4). Measures aimed at combating prison overcrowding and reducing the size of the prison population need to be embedded in a coherent and rational crime policy directed towards the prevention of crime and criminal behaviour, effective law enforcement, public safety and protection, the in dividualisation of sanctions and measures and the social reintegration of offenders (Council of Europe, 1999).

Performance Enhancing Supplements Essay -- Steroids Illegal Drugs Heal

Performance Enhancing Supplements Northeastern junior Colin Magee is like other athletic students around campus. He played sports in high school and now lifts weights at the Marino Center, Northeastern’s multi-million dollar workout center, several times a week. Also like many other weight-lifting students, Magee takes performance-enhancing supplements. Performance-enhancing supplements are nutrients that, unlike anabolic steroids, are available over the counter at countless supermarkets and nutrition stores nationwide. Supplements such as androstenedione (andro), creatine, tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), and NO2 are the most popular in today’s market, and are used to improve muscle gain. They are taken to coincide with a weight-lifting program. The supplements, though all similar, differ in the way each works once inside the body. "Creatine is the most moderate of the supplements out there," says Magee, an amateur expert on supplement and steroid use. Magee's sister is a professional bodybuilder. "Creatine creates water retention in muscles, basically bloating the muscles to increase strength...NO2, nitric oxide, is what they call a hemo-dialator, which is a blood widener. NO2 creates more blood flow in the body, makes the blood pump harder, which creates increased strength... Andro tricks the body into thinking it is not producing enough testosterone, so it causes the body to overproduce the testosterone hormone." While supplements are sold over the counter, anabolic steroids, which are illegal in the United States, are not. Despite this, anabolic steroid use has been rising in recent years. A 1989 study by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) showed that roughly one in every 20 collegiate student-athlet... ...ds, and more and more teenagers are seeing their idols admit to taking supplements and steroids and think it’s okay if they did too. In today’s world, where skinny girls are prettier and bulky guys are more handsome, teenagers and college students are under more pressure to conform to these social norms, and if someone is under pressure, they are more apt to turn to other unnatural methods to better their results and appearance. The answer to this problem is an increase of awareness. If people were aware of the real risks of these supplements or the long term effects of taking steroids, then maybe, just maybe, today’s youth will turn away from these supplements and steroids. Maybe, just maybe, today’s youth will realize that maybe taking those supplements isn’t really worth it after all. Maybe, just maybe, they will choose their health over their appearance.

Development Programs

Development programs are important for groups and organizations, as they support useful changes and improvements. The advantage of using development programs is that they structure the improvements in a way that is efficiently manageable and easy to implement. However, different circumstances make for a different approach for a development program to be effective. Thus, individuals, groups, and organizations as a whole have different requirements. In developing programs, there are also three important elements that can be taken into consideration. There is goal setting, behavior modification, and team building.Each can be used solely or complement each other for an individual, group, or organization to achieve its goals. Individuals Development programs for an individual give focus on the person and his differing needs. According to Miller and Osinski (1996), individual development programs aim to patch shortcomings and instigate improvements in an individual who needs development, a s well as institute improvement on all individuals for the benefit of himself and his role. In treating an individual, his needs and the way that these needs differ from those of other people are given consideration.This is an especially important fact when making a development program geared towards influencing individual persons. There should be more weight put on what can interest each of the target audience of the program to achieve success. A needs assessment begins the program. The individual is evaluated from which his needs are known. This needs become the basis of the training and development customized for him. The program is designed and implemented, though changes may be instituted from time to time to fit the changing individual.After the program, the individual and the program are evaluated to find out if the development program has been effective, and if improvements may be necessary. Groups Development program for groups, on the other hand, has a different focal poin t. Avelino and Lifton (2001) assert that group programs in organizations help increase the productivity of the individuals involved in the organization. However, the group shall have to be a work team first who is both effective and efficient. When this has been accomplished, the group which is now a team can start with their development program.A group’s development program begins with an acquaintance stage for the members of the team. It is only when the members already know about each other that they can effectively communicate. When this has been done, a brainstorming can be called to order. The brainstorming is where ideas and objectives come from. These ideas define what roles and tasks can be divided to each member on the next stage, the norming phase. When each member has been delegated, members start working and consulting each other about how the work can be done. Finally, members verbally accept or modify the tasks put on them.(Avelino and Lifton, 2001) Group devel opment programs focus on tasks. Thus, most items included in this program are based on job descriptions, assessments of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and abilities (KSA), identifying and evaluating the standards of performance, work performance observations, and identification of problems of each individual if there are any. (Miller and Osinski, 1996) In facilitating so, needed solutions can be instituted properly and timely. Organizations In organizations, development programs go through phases to be accomplished.There is also an assessment of the organizational needs, but apart from that there is a study of the objectives of development instruction, development instruction design, the implementation stage, and the evaluation of the program. (Miller and Osinski, 1996) The needs assessment creates a foundation for the development program. This is where topics of instruction or development focus will be based. The needs of the organization, however, differ from that of individualsâ⠂¬â„¢ and groups’ in such a way that many of their developmental needs are based on organizational vision and missions.This includes the needs of the individuals who are part of the organization as well as the need of the organization as a whole. Development programs for organizations also needs to follow a set of instruction objectives based on the organization’s assessed needs. These objectives are instructed following an instruction design which will be the way the program is carried out in the implementation stage. After the implementation, an evaluation of the program shall be done to identify the successes of the initiative as well as improvements that may be in order.Organizational development programs also take into consideration factors which are outside of the workplace such as political and lawmaking changes, organizational changes, environmental effects, and goals that the organization is ready to focus on. Development programs for organizations are led by senior administrators, human resources managers, or a group of people directly managing the organization. In all types of development program, whether it is for an individual, group, or an organization, the evaluation is a key developmental stage.The evaluation phase enables the proponents of a program to know if each of the target participants of development has been properly reached by the program, and if they learned anything from it. Miller and Osinski (1996) states that evaluations determine if the objectives developed in the beginning of the program were achieved, know how the participants of the program react to it, what the participants learned and how much, and how well are they willing and able to bring what they have learned from the program.There are many ways in evaluating a development program in an organization. There can be a written examination, a one-on-one interview/observation, an open-group discussion, a feedback solicitation process such as using a feedback for m or a feedback forum, or there is also the post-program observation to determine if objectives were met and if goals were absorbed by the participants of the program. Goal Setting Goal setting, behavior modification, and team building are necessary business processes that allow organizations and individuals to improve.They are essential in development program in that goals make focus possible, behavioral modification makes positive behavior remain, and teams allow for synergy and cooperation. While they may have interrelated and even similar purposes, each of them are different in their own respects. Each has different characteristics as well. Goal setting, for instance, gives a person, a group, or organization a focal point. With focus, it is easier for a person to know what his priorities are, and how these priorities can be implemented.Goals also give motivation, and helps one identify if the goals are smart, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Goals may be in a personal, group, or organizational level. (Personal goal setting, 2007) On a personal level, goal setting is focused on what an individual assumes to achieve in a specific period of time. It may be a short-term goal he aims to achieve now or in a matter of days or weeks, or a mid-term goal achievable in a matter of months, or a long-term goal set for accomplishment in years.The goal may concern oneself or what oneself wants to do toward another person or thing. As well, the goals of an individual are often smaller in scale compared to those set by a group or an organization. (Personal goal setting, 2007) On a group level, goal setting takes the needs and wants of a group. Before these goals are set, it is important that disagreements have been reconciled. The group must have carried out an agreement of what their goals will be. This will avoid any later problems that may arise.When goals have been agreed on and set out, this is the time when the members can delegate tasks and commit to each. It differs from individual goal setting because this time the goals do not concern any one person’s interest but the collective interest of the members of the group. An organization goal setting is wholly different as it gives focus on the vision and missions of the organization. In the absence of this, the needs and wants that the management would like to achieve is where the organization can base goals.The organization may create these goals from the individual needs of the workforce, or of the company as a whole. Organizational goals, when set, are then studied so that implementation and instructional techniques are identified and put into place. These goals differ from individual goals because they have no focus on one person, yet differ from group goals as well because goals are based on the needs of many groups under the organization’s care. Behavior Modification Behavior modification, on the other hand, uses a rewards system.The thrust of this is that rewarding positive behavior increases the occurrence of such behavior. Thus, when individuals are productive and achieve results, behavior modification allows the, to enjoy the fruits of their labor through compensation. For instance, an employee who exceeds the standards required of their position receives bonus compensation. In doing so the management encourages them to continue their exemplary performance, while also influencing those who are underperforming, or just meeting their standards equally, to compete and do the same.(Behavior modification, 2007) Team Building Team building is done to make group function effectively, and avoid pitfalls as each of their members function together as one. For team building to be successful, each member should follow a singular goal and focus on it. Every member should be functioning towards the implementation of these goals. Each member of the team should have a clear task, and should know how to efficiently carry out these tasks. (Te am building, 1995) It is not enough for a group of people to assemble to be called a team.Teams require a special bonding and correlation. Otherwise, they are called plainly as a group. This also denies the members the opportunity to work in synergy with the other members of the group. Without this synergy, the group will have no focus and goals will be hard to achieve. Cooperation is the key premise of team building. Cooperation means that team members should be responsible of their assigned tasks, as well as be sensitive about other members who may need help. This is because should one of these assignments fail, the whole team will not work. References Avelino, J. and Lifton, H. 2001. How to develop a group into an effective work team. Retrieved July 28, 2007, from http://www.aednet.org/ced/feb99/people_points.htm Behavior modification. 2007. Retrieved July 28, 2007, from http://add.about.com/cs/discipline/a/behavior.htm Miller, J. and Osinski, D. 1996. Training needs assessment. Retrieved July 28, 2007, from http://www.ispi.org/pdf/suggestedReading/Miller_Osinski.pdf Personal goal setting. 2007. Retrieved July 28, 2007, from http://www.mindtools.com/page6.html Team building. 1995. Retrieved July 28, 2007, from http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/teambuilding.htm      

Zebulon Pike and His Expeditions to the West

Zebulon Pike and His Expeditions to the West The soldier and explorer Zebulon Pike is remembered for two expeditions he led to explore territory acquired by the United States in the Louisiana Purchase. It is often assumed he climbed Pikes Peak, the Colorado mountain named for him. He did not reach the peaks summit, though he did explore in its vicinity on one of his expeditions. In some ways, Pikes western voyages are second only to Lewis and Clark. Yet his efforts have always been overshadowed by nagging questions about the motivations for his journeys. What was he trying to accomplish by trekking around in the previously unexplored West? Was he a spy? Did he have secret orders to provoke a war with Spain? Was he simply an adventurous Army officer seeking adventure while filling in the map? Or was he actually intent on trying to expand the limits of his nations boundaries? Mission to Explore Western Territories Zebulon Pike was born in New Jersey on January 5, 1779, the son of an officer in the U.S. Army. When he was a teenager Zebulon Pike entered the army as a cadet, and when he was 20 years old he was given an officers commission as a lieutenant. Pike was posted at several outposts on the western frontier. And in 1805 the commander of the U.S. Army, General James Wilkinson, gave Pike the assignment of traveling northward up the Mississippi River from St. Louis to find the rivers source. It would later be revealed that General Wilkinson harbored dubious loyalties. Wilkinson was commanding the U.S. Army. Yet he was also secretly receiving payments from Spain, which at the time had vast holdings along the southwest frontier. The first expedition on which Wilkinson dispatched Pike, to find the source of the Mississippi River in 1805, may have had an ulterior motive. It is suspected that Wilkinson may have been hoping to provoke a conflict with Britain, which at the time controlled Canada. Pikes First Western Expedition Pike, leading a party of 20 soldiers, left St. Louis in August 1805. He traveled into present-day Minnesota, spending a winter among the Sioux. Pike arranged a treaty with the Sioux and mapped much of the region. When winter arrived, he pressed forward with a few men and determined that Lake Leech was the source of the great river. He was wrong, Lake Itasca is the actual source of the Mississippi. There were suspicions that Wilkinson didnt really care what the real source of the river was, as his real interest was to sent a probe northward to see how the British would react. After Pike returned to St. Louis in 1806, General Wilkinson had another assignment for him. Pikes Second Western Expedition The second expedition led by Zebulon Pike remains puzzling after more than two centuries. Pike was sent westward, again by General Wilkinson, and the purpose of the expedition remains mysterious. The ostensible reason Wilkinson sent Pike into the West was to explore the sources of the Red River and the Arkansas River. And, as the United States had recently acquired the Louisiana Purchase from France, Pike was apparently supposed to explore and report on the lands in the southwestern portion of the purchase. Pike began his mission by acquiring supplies in St. Louis, and word of his upcoming expedition leaked out. A detachment of Spanish troops was assigned to shadow Pike as he moved westward, and perhaps even stop him from traveling. After leaving St. Louis on July 15, 1806, with Spanish cavalry apparently shadowing him from a distance, Pike traveled to the area of present-day Pueblo, Colorado. He tried and failed to climb the mountain that would later be named for him, Pikes Peak. Zebulon Pike Headed for Spanish Territory Pike, after exploring in the mountains, turned southward and led his men toward Spanish territory. A detachment of Spanish troops found Pike and his men living in a crude fort they had built of cottonwood trees on the banks of the Rio Grande. When challenged by the Spanish soldiers, Pike explained that he believed he was camping along the Red River, within territory belonging to the United States. The Spanish assured him he was on the Rio Grande. Pike lowered the American flag flying over the fort. At that point, the Spanish invited Pike to accompany them to Mexico, and Pike and his men were escorted to Santa Fe. Pike was questioned by the Spanish. He stuck to his story that he believed he had been exploring within American territory. Pike was treated well by the Spanish, who transported him and his men onward to Chihuahua and eventually released them to return to the United States. In the summer of 1807, the Spanish escorted him to Louisiana, where he was released, safely back on American soil. Zebulon Pike Returned to American Under a Cloud of Suspicion By the time Zebulon Pike returned to the United States, things had changed dramatically. An alleged plot devised by Aaron Burr to seize American territory and set up a separate nation in the Southwest had been uncovered. Burr, the former vice-president, and killer of Alexander Hamilton had been charged with treason. Also implicated in the alleged plot was General James Wilkinson, the man who had sent Zebulon Pike on his expeditions. To the public and many in the government, it appeared that Pike may have played some  shadowy role in the Burr conspiracy. Was Pike really a spy for Wilkinson and Burr? Was he trying to provoke the Spanish in some way? Or was he secretly cooperating with the Spanish in some plot against his own country? Instead of returning as a heroic explorer, Pike was forced to clear his name. After he proclaimed his innocence, government officials concluded that Pike had acted loyally. He resumed his military career and even wrote a book based on his explorations. As for Aaron Burr, he was charged with treason but acquitted at a trail at which General Wilkinson testified. Zebulon Pike Became a War Hero Zebulon Pike was promoted to major in 1808. With the outbreak of the War of 1812, Pike was promoted to general. General Zebulon Pike commanded American troops attacking York (now Toronto), Canada in the spring of 1813. Pike was leading the assault on the heavily defended town and the withdrawing British blew up a powder magazine during their retreat. Pike was struck by a piece of stone which broke his back. He was carried to an American ship, where he died on April 27, 1813. His troops had succeeded in capturing the town, and a captured British flag was placed under his head just before he died. The Legacy of Zebulon Pike Considering his heroic actions in the War of 1812, Zebulon Pike was remembered as a military hero. And in the 1850s settlers and prospectors in Colorado began calling the mountain he encountered Pikes Peak, a name which stuck. Yet the questions about his expeditions still remain. There are numerous theories about why Pike was sent into the West, and whether his explorations were really missions of espionage.

Torture Is Never Justified

Torture Is Never Justified Torture through the History The concept of torture is at the base of many conflicts that take place throughout the country. In fact, it began in ancient times with the Romans and Greeks forcing their prisoners to participate in some of the worst forms of torture we’ve ever known. Since that time, countries around the world have used everything from ‘the rack,’ tar and feathering, stoning, waterboarding and much more to torture others whether for the purpose of gaining information or simply as a method of slowly killing a prisoner. For any purpose, however, torture has never been able to be justified, at any point in our history and most definitely will not be at any point in our future. Torture Is Often Useless Many claim that torture can be justified because it comes down to the safety of the people. They believe that torturing someone in order to gain information that could potentially save lives is acceptable or even reasonable, however, this is not the case. In fact, torture is often used on those labeled as ‘traitors’ for this very purpose but is not often as effective as many would have us believe. This is because those who are being tortured, those who may know something that we would want them to divulge, are also highly trained to ignore the torture and to fight through it as long as they need to until death. As a result, the torture is being done on an individual for no purpose but perhaps a level of sadism on the part of the captor. Despite what we may be told, there is little if anything to be gained by the process. Yet another problem that arises with the concept of torture is at what point does it end? In many countries, torture is allowed for different types of crimes. In the United States, only those accused of being terrorists or prisoners of war are allowed to be tortured, yet only the accusation and not actual proof is needed. In other countries, crimes less than terrorism can be punished by torture and in still others, a crime is not even needed to enact torture on the basis of a simple belief. How could it be possible to even for those who believe in torture in some instances to say that torture is allowed in all  instances per justice? And this is where the struggle begins. Because the more that torture is defended and allowed in one situation, the more others will clamor for it to be allowed in all situations. After all, every criminal situation is looking to help people, to protect people. Want to know more? Go here: When Is Military Force Justified? Single-Parent Children Behaviour Causes of Human Errors in Aircraft Accidents Human Dignity   Sample Essay about Happiness What Is the Value of Human Life? The truth of the matter is that it is not only the government that participates in torture. There are also many instances of vigilante justice where the people of a country or area will join together to enact some type of vengeance on a person they perceive to have done something wrong. These individuals could be tortured with no more evidence against them than public opinion and yet, by attempting to justify torture in some senses, we are opening the door to these types of torture in any sense. The most important matter, however, that arises in this question, is that of human life. The value of human life, of human wellbeing, is written into the Constitution of the United States, ‘the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.’ The life and ‘pursuit of happiness’ for all people is important to us and has always been. But through torture, we strip individuals of their life and their liberty and their pursuit of happiness with the thought that, because we believe them to have done something bad, they are somehow less human. When viewing this issue of torture it is important to remember that there have been changes to it throughout time. Originally, very little was needed in order to implement torture on anyone. Over time, we have narrowed down the reasons and this is a step in the right direction. However, we have not eliminated the process altogether and this is an important next step for us to take. Torture cannot be allowed to continue in any nation that would call itself civilized because, despite what we may be told, there is no justice to be found in torture.

Jewish culture and cartoons Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Jewish culture and cartoons - Research Paper Example Ideally, the information gathered herein is very essential as it helps in reaching to the disabled and prejudiced in Israel and empowers them to be acceptable in the society (Kaplan 125-146). The story dates back to 1933. It was in the course of 1933, that the Global world was experiencing vibrant and seismic changes in the political and modern culture field. Their lived a Jewish Novelty Salesman identified as Maxwell Charles "M.C." Gaines, who had a lot of passion in reading old comic strips, he had read various books since he was jobless. He initiated a very brilliant idea, as much as he loved reading comic books, there was a probability that even other Americans could develop such an attitude. Such an idea, from Maxwell enhanced the birth of an American Comic book. The book was reprinted in newspaper comical. Famous Funnies #1, Series 1, was thus published in February 1934, by Gaines and Harry at Eastern color printing. Publishing of this book enhanced a rise in rival comic book publishers. However, this did not last long and by the mid 1930s publishers has already drained the backlog of both daily and Sunday strips that were to be reprinted. The only opportunity that had been left for the emerging comic book features was to faucet writers and writers, who had no access to any literature, either due to their young age, untested or the Jewish. The advertising bureaus had anti-Semitic quotas, and newspaper consortiums only rarely got a token Jewish cartoonist like Milt Gross or Rube Goldberg. However, most of the Comic book companies were manned by the Jewish publishers, like, Timely Comic’s Martin Goodman or DC Comic’s (Harry, Baskind, Sherman 145-155). The situation could be reflected to the olden times motion picture industry, through which the Jewish Directors, producers and the studio executives who experienced anti-Semitism in other industries, resolved into setting up their own. Since the comic book stories, had taken

E-Government Literature Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 17000 words

E-Government Literature Review - Essay Example g political combine, but the government has to take care of the interest of its citizens in other countries or regions, undertake infrastructure developmental activities and frame policies for effective control on the affairs. One understanding of government is a notion of public social control, logically related to responsiveness in handling the affairs of the state (McGarrell et al. 1997). Indeed, government exits in different forms depending upon the acceptability within the territory. In establishing a working definition, the research contained herein takes on a pragmatic understanding of government; in the contextual frame of working government definitions, this understanding is a broad reaching approach. Influenced by Drapeau (2009), government is ultimately understood in five different ways: iii. Government as a Partner: Government is supposed to work towards developing the municipality, the state or the country by soliciting active support and cooperation of its citizens, organizations and like-minded political affiliations As government is composed of citizens, it is necessary to consider the nature of citizenship. Someone who is an authorized resident of a territory, state or country is termed as the citizen of that particular region. Respective government makes efforts to ensure distinctive rights and privileges for their citizens in order to make them happy and seek their active cooperation in nation building. For example, the UK government came out with the attempts to propose an â€Å"entitlement card† for its authorized citizens in order to relate the rights and entitlements of their citizenship. This is being done with the help of standard biometric identification cards for British citizens (Beynon-Davies, 2007). This indicates the kind of importance attached with being a citizen of the country. Today, we are living in the era of globalization, which is marked by freer movement of people across boundaries, in different states and countries.